> 42 ka human teeth from El Castillo Cave (Cantabria, Spain) Mid-Upper Paleolithic transition

Abstract Three deciduous tooth crowns were found in Unit 18B El Castillo Cave (Spain), considered a transitional Middle-Upper Paleolithic with numerous 14 C dates means earlier than > 42–44 ka cal. BP. Our goal was to describe these teeth, compare them Neanderthal, Mousterian Modern Humans, and Early-Mid Upper fossils (through scatterplots Z -scores), analyze their morphology. The teeth consist of isolated (one ULdi 1 , one ULdm 2 LRdm ) corresponding three children, all modified by heavy occlusal interproximal wear. Their length breadth diameters, shown the bivariate scatterplots, similar those several young Neanderthals. -scores two crown diameters respect Late Qafzeh Skhul, Aurignacian-Gravettian series had values approximately 0, while altered MDs are just below − 1, except comparison last group; Z- scores BL fall within range variability series. Qualitative morphological comparisons highlighted characteristics that consistent Neanderthal taxonomic assignment. combined archeological anatomical-comparative study suggested presence children 18, location primary butchery area. chronology morphology framework Middle transition outstanding debate about Neanderthals unconfirmed, but possible, few groups modern humans Western Europe.